"biases in computer systems can be difficult to identify let alone remedy because of the way the technology engages and extenuates them. Computer systems, for instance, are compar- atively inexpensive to disseminate, and thus, once developed, a biased system has the potential for widespread impact. If the system becomes a standard in the field, the bias becomes pervasive. If the system is complex, and most are, biases can remain hidden in the code, difficult to pinpoint or explicate, and not necessarily disclosed to users or their clients. Further- more, unlike in our dealings with biased individuals with whom a potential victim can negotiate, biased systems offer no equivalent means for appeal."

Digital technologies are not simply new tools to create and distribute copies of things; they also enable new social relationships through which people produce multiples. This thesis explores two examples of such digital systems: outsourcing paintings to the Chinese oil paintings industry, and crowdsourcing drawings using Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Looking carefully at these socio-technical systems —which are both unique and underexamined in the art world—raises a number of interesting questions about authorship and human/computer relationships. This thesis does not propose to answer these questions, but the projects described are an attempt to explore the implications of these systems in various ways.

The Practice of Typography; Modern Methods of Book Composition by Theodore Low De Vinne, 1904. Free download.